Economic Geography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Economic Geography - Essay Example These include corruption of state officials, poor management of resources, and over dependence on foreign aid, poor government policies, lack of proper education, and lack of good infrastructure. These factors, summed up with the global epidemics of global warming and climate change, lead to underdevelopment in a country. Corruption among state officials is a common phenomenon in many underdeveloped and poor countries. This was the case in Kenya’s Goldenberg Saga in which tax payers’ money was squandered in the name of trading gold and other precious stones. The power that these masterminds possess is derived from their money. These corrupt officials never got any legal punishment. The corrupt officials also fail to deploy development funds to the regions that require them, and instead pocket the biggest portions of it. The result of this greed is the lack of development in the deprived regions and the eventual poverty of the people living in these areas. Another cause of poverty and underdevelopment is the poor management of natural resources and their under-utilization. These resources include earth minerals, water bodies, agricultural land, and sources of energy. There is no much effort in tapping natural resources and using them for development. A case in check is solar power. It was hardly tapped in large amounts to power massive utilities. Instead, underdeveloped countries depended on imported petroleum products for fuel. Oil is expensive and one cannot renew it once it is used up, unlike the natural and cheap solar energy and wind energy. Agricultural land is also not utilized to its fullest. Instead, people are abandoning it and going to look for jobs in the cities, and yet these countries have no food security. Poor government policies are also another reason for underdevelopment. These poor policies fail to address the issues affecting underdeveloped countries. They include misplaced financial

Cyberbullying among teens and adolescents Essay Example for Free

Cyberbullying among teens and adolescents Essay Cyberbullying among Teens and Adolescences Cyberbullying is one of the major problems over the internet. This type of bullying involves technology and communication, such as the internet, social media, text, calls, and blogs. Cyberbullying happens when there is an imbalance among people over the internet, where someone purposefully says hurtful words to a next individual. People from the different race, age, class, and culture suffer from different types of cyberbullying through technology. According to Prince Edward, â€Å"Cyberbullying is being cruel to another person by sending or posting hurtful materials using the Internet or cell phone† (Prince Edward). Cyberbullying affects humans socially, emotionally, mentally and physically. Over the years cyberbullying have become more popular among teen and adolescence because their mental thinking is not fully developed and they act without thinking. The internet has become more available to the younger generation in different parts of the world. Trisha Prabhu mentions that â€Å"adolescents brain is like a car without brakes no stopping, no thinking, and no considering. She further mentions that adolescent brains develop from the back, which means that the front part of their brain is not fully developing until age 25† (Trisha Prabhu). The cortex is an important aspect of thinking and decision making, which is not fully developed in adolescence. This is the main reason some adolescence act without thinking because they are not mature to make decisions on their own. Cyberbullying is a big problem among adolescent and teens. They have become victims of social media violence, which causes depression and suicidal thinking among their peers. Bullying has been around for a very long time, even before the internet. I remember when I was in high school some returning students used to bully some of the freshman students by writing on their uniforms. Some of the statements were, â€Å"You are such a dick, worthless and you deserve to die.† This happened before I had internet access in my school. Robin Kowalski states that â€Å"As more people turn to the Internet for school, work, and social use, so too do more people turn to the Internet to take out their frustration and aggression† (Robin Kowalski). I think Robin Kowalski statement is too general because I believe that it is mostly teens and adolescents who â€Å"take out their frustration and aggression† on the internet, which leads to cyberbullying that push child to commit suici dal. According to Prince Edwards, â€Å"Increasing numbers of teens and pre-teens are becoming victims of this new form of violence. Although many different terms such as â€Å"cyberbullying†, â€Å"internet harassment†, and â€Å"internet bullying† has been used to describe this type of violence, â€Å"electronic aggression† is the term that most accurately captures all types of violence that occur electronically. Like traditional forms of youth violence, electronic aggression is associated with emotional distress and conduct problems at school. In fact, recent research by CDC suggests that youth who are victimized electronically are also very likely to also be victimized off-line† (Prince Edwards). Some teen and adolescence take part in cyberbullying because they believe it is a type of entertainment that gives them pleasure and satisfaction. Trisha Prabhu states, that Rebecca Sedwick an eleven years old girl from Florida received some mean words on social media, such as go kill yourself, you are so ugly, why are you still alive?† (Trisha Prabhu).   This shows how adolescents are evil and wicked to their own kind. These words could lead Rebecca to go kill herself because of what her peer think about her. Social media is just an addition extension towards bullying among adolescents, this is a new device that they can use locally and internationally to bully more persons in their social space. I totally agreed with Prince Edwards that technology should bring people together; instead, it is used to abuse each other; pushing peers out of their social network and pushing them into loneliness, embarrassment, fear or shame. (Prince Edwards). Social media have taken a different toll on teens and adolescents life in society. Sometimes people face bullying because they do not fit in the norm of their peer’s social space and their peers use that against them to push them out. As Alix Lambert mentions in her video, â€Å"it either you fit in or get out†, therefore it is a â€Å"culture of deformity† (Alix Lambert). It is great that Schobel created an app that allows students to anonymously report bullying, but how many children are brave enough to report the matter? Some of the students that face bullying, sometimes upload or share a goodbye video to the world or close friends. Works Cited An App That Let Kids Report Cyberbullies Anonymously. n.d. Don’t blame the bully, blame the system . Perf. Alix Lambert. 2014. Edward, Prince. Taking Stock of CYBERBULLYING Taking Stock of CYBERBULLYING (n.d.). Lattanner, Robin M. KowalskiGary W. GiumettiAmber N. SchroederMicah R. Bullying in the Digital Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth . (2014). Rethinking before you type. Perf. Trisha Prabhu. 2014.

Technology In Recruitment Selection Business Essay

Technology In Recruitment Selection Business Essay Introduction In a world that is constantly changing and evolving, technology surrounds us all. This essay identifies and evaluates the use of technology in the HR department in general and in the recruitment selection process in particular. Technology, E-Human Resources and E-HR systems will de be defined first. Then, the recruitment and selection process will be described along with the different recruitment tools. The different methods of online recruitment will be evaluated along with e-selection methods. The pros and cons of the uses of technology in the recruitment selection processes will be discussed in depth. Finally, a conclusion will be made. Human Resources Technology Technology according to ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANICA (2010) is  the application of scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life or, as it is sometimes phrased, to the change and manipulation of the human environment. The past decade has seen the introduction, application, and merging of technology in the workforce or as some may label it the information revolution. The information revolution has changed the whole work environment. Most of the tasks are computerized and companies rely heavily on their computer systems. The Human resource department was not immune to such a revolution, the adaptation of technology in HR lead to the birth of E-Human Resources. E- Human Resources ENTREPRENEUR (2010) defines Human Resources as The department or support systems responsible for personnel sourcing and hiring, applicant tracking, skills development and tracking, benefits administration and compliance with associated government regulations. The Human Resources department is the hub of the company. It acts like an advocate for both the company and the employees and is responsible for the employees well-being, benefits, payroll, hiring, team building, coaching, recruitment and selectionetc. E-Human Resources on the other hand refers to the application of technology like the internet in the transactions of the human resources department. (Lengnick-Hall and Moritz, 2003). E-HR aims at running the operations of the HR department smoothly and efficiently, by keeping all necessary information readily available to all managers and employees when needed. E- Human Resources Systems The mixture of the vast growing information technology and the need for continual improvement of work efficiency was among the major drivers for the development of the E-Human Resources systems. (Stanton and Coovert, 2004; Fletcher, 2005). In other words E-HR systems are a merger between HR activities and information technology. Human Resources systems are created by vendors like Oracle and Ascentis, they usually include four modules: Payroll module, Time and Labor Management module, Benefits Administration module, and finally the HR management module. The Payroll module manages and controls all employees salaries and payrolls, while the Time and Labor management modules control attendance, absences issues. Benefit Administration model deals with employees benefits and entitlements. While the HR management module helps in the selection and recruitment process, more on this module will be explained later. Moreover, E-HR systems also include enterprise resource planning system (ERP), HR service centres, interactive voice response, manager and employee portals and web applications. (Panayotopoulou,Vakola and Galanaki 2007). Enterprise resource planning system is used to manage financial, materials and human resources both internally and externally. Overall, HR systems cater for the different needs of the HR department and helps automate many aspects of human resourcing. Recruitment and Selection Every business, enterprise and organization goes through the recruitment and selection process. It is the most important aspect of the human resource management department, as it provides the organization with the essential resources needed for its operations the human capital (Barber, 1998). Recruitment is defined as the activities an organization undertakes in order to identify and attract potential employees (Breaugh and Starke, 2000). Selection is what comes after recruitment of choosing the best candidate for the job out of all the applicants. The recruitment and selection process Getting the recruitment and selection process wrong is not an option for recruiters, the wrong person for the job will not only affect the companys productivity but it will also result in business losses (book reference). That is why most companies follow a somewhat standardized recruitment and selection process, shown in the figure below. Recruitment Organizations mold their recruitment processes or strategies according to the job they want to occupy. In order to attract the right candidates, HR professionals advertise in a certain way, seek professionals or graduates, contact agencies or use the Internet. Recruitment tools In a study by Bernthal and Development Dimensions International, data was collected from members of the Electronic Recruiting Exchange. Among the survey questions was a question about the recruitment strategy and its effectiveness. The findings of the study show that the internet is the most popular and most effective recruitment method while employee referrals came second. This shows that although the internet is new and more effective, it did not replace the traditional recruitment methods. Figure showing Berthals results: Taken from Recruitment Selection paper by Barthal and Development Dimensions International Online Recruitment The internet was not acknowledged as a recruitment tool until the mid 1990s. With the benefits it brought to recruiters, the media described it as the driver behind a recruiting revolution (Boydell, 2002). Many companies now have a new position in the HR department; Online recruiter. Online recruitment is growing rapidly; both recruiters and job seekers around the world use it. It can be defined as the use of the internet to match job seekers with appropriate jobs. In other terms, using the internet to attract potential employees. Studies were carried out to understand and quantify how much recruitment exactly is done online. These studies include: a study by total jobs 2004 that shows that two thirds of the organizations in the UK use job boards. While HR focus (2001) indicated that more than 75% of HR professionals use job boards in addition to the traditional recruitment methods. In the USA, Cober and Brown (2006) found out that 50% of the recruitments were carried online and this figure is expected to increase. Moreover, a study by Capelli (2001) stated that 90% of the Fortune 500 use online recruiting. A poll carried out by The Recruiters Network (website) showed that 45% of the companies filled 20% or more of their positions through online recruitment (Charles 2000). The most effective and popular online recruitment methods are: Talent Management Systems The HR management module mentioned previously pursues talent management. Talent management is the process of attracting and hiring skilled employees, or retaining current employees while helping them work on their own talents. Talent Management systems perform the following tasks: analyze the use of personnel within the company, post job vacancies online, review applicants credentials, track demographic data of candidates, store information, automatically communicate and provide information to applicants and many more, depending on the company. Thus talent management systems are used in the recruitment process. Advertising on the companys site The first, cheapest step a company can take to recruit people is to advertise about the job offer on its on website. In a study by Bartam (2000) figures showed 88% of companies recruiting 50 or more graduates per year advertise on their own website. Advertising on the companys website slashes advertisement costs in newspapers, magazines, and recruitment agenciesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc. the internet is global medium, thus making it very much easier to spread the word, while being much more cost effective. The company can also use Google ads as a way to advertise for job vacancies within the organization. Job Boards Job boards are recruitment websites that match recruiters with the most appropriate applicants (also called job hunters) through advertisements and job postings. There are plenty of job boards on the world wide web; the most popular include Monster, CareerBuilder and HotJobs.com. Since these websites are similar and offer the same service, monster.com will be used as an example in order to evaluate and understand job boards. Monster.com Monster.com is a global online recruitment website. Its network consists of 22 local content and language sites. The traffic on the website is estimated to be over 25 million job seeking users and over 100,000 member companies. Its rà ©sumà © database contains more than 17 million rà ©sumà ©s. Two separate studies by Gutmacher (2000) and Leonard (2000) both confirmed that the emergence of monster.com and rà ©sumà © as frequent search words indicates the influence of job boards (monster.com) on web job searching or in other words online recruitment. According to monster.coms employment index, the month of September 2010 showed a 131 employment index the highest so far. More interestingly, Wales showed the highest employment in the UK region. From the figures and information above, it is safe to conclude that job boards are doing well and play a vital role in online recruitment. However, a significant number of job seekers continue to search in general search engines (reference) while other studies highlighted the role of social media websites play in job recruitment. Social media websites The past decade has seen the rise of social media websites. It is now not enough to post your resume on a job board. Social recruitment is now beginning to over shadow the use of job boards and other traditional recruitment methods at some companies (Levinson 2010). Moreover, recruiters are spammed with hundreds of applications of unqualified personnel when posting on big job boards which forces them to look for qualified applicants elsewhere. Findings from a survey conducted by Jobvite (a recruitment software maker) showed that 73.3% of the companies use social networks for recruitment, while 9.3% are planning to begin next year. Another finding shows that LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter are among the most popular social media networks used by companies for recruitment. LinkedIn LinkedIn is a professional network, which includes contacts and relationships developed over the years.. LinkedIn provides its users with the means of establishing an authoritative resource on their experience and capabilities, thus making users more attractive to recruiters. Currently LinkedIn consists of more than 80 million members from over 200 countries. LinkedIn from recruiters perspective is a place that provides access to different kinds of reliable qualified talents. The main reason that companies are using LinkedIn is to find passive job candidates. Another reason why companies are using LinkedIn, is because referrals from their employees are highly valued because they typically have a higher success rate (hence the popular employee referral bonuses). LinkedIn helps companies leverage the networks of their employees. Kay Luo, Director of corporate communication at LinkedIn. Hundred of companies use LinkedIn and LinkedIn corporate solutions to post jobs and source candidates for recruitment. The question is: How does LinkedIn work? For example, person x creates a profile, uploads a picture and writes down his skills, capabilities and experiences. A company searching for an employee or a recruitment agency working for that company searches the databases available at LinkedIn, finds person x who has the skills required for the job. The company then looks at his information and if person x is the right person for the job, they contact him. LinkedIn is growing rapidly to the extent to which it is almost unprofessional not to have a LinkedIn profile. Considering that executives and employees from the all the fortune 500 companies have LinkedIn profiles. Facebook Facebook is ranked 2nd among social media sites used for recruitment purposes. It is a social networking site that connects people with their friends, co-workers, family members, and others. Chris Russel, founder of jobsinpods.com thinks that: Facebook is a talent goldmine. Its filled with millions of passive candidates that employers covet. Looking at Facebooks demographics, it has more than 200 million active users. Success recruitment stories, like the Ernest Young Facebook group means: if Facebook is utilized correctly, recruiters can access and select from a wide spread of talented candidates. They key to Facebook recruitment is to create relationships with potential employees in order to make yourself their employer of choice (Facebook Recruitment Tips, 2008) The figure below illustrates how facebook can be used: Selection The selection process is not easy. An executive interviewed by Forrester explained the selection process: We have to sift through lots of resumes, like kissing frogs before you find the prince (Lawrence 1999) Hundreds of applicants apply for the job, companies then have to filter out the suitable ones and filter them even more to find the right person for the job. Technology has made the selection process easier, nowadays there are numerous methods used by companies in order to test applicants. Some of these methods are: Applications Database Applications Database also known as resume database are computer softwares used to keep track of applications. Applications are sent to the database where they are stored, a query containing any keyword the company desires is run to find applicants with the required specifications. This helps in narrowing down the applicants to the most suitable ones. These programs also enable companies to send template emails and set up interviews without the need to manually do it, thus proving to be cost and time efficient. Online testing and assessment Psychometric tests are used to measure the applicants capabilities. It gives the employer an insight into whether the applicant can work well with a group and his ability to handle stress and meet intellectual demands of the job. These tests are usually divided into: Aptitude tests There are several types of aptitude tests as shown in the figure below. The type of test the applicant has to sit through depends on the job he/she is applying for. Taken from psychometric-success.com Aptitude tests measure the abilities of applicants in the area the job requires the most. Personality tests Personality tests include questions about behavior, feelings and thoughts. They are used to analyze the applicants characteristics in order to find out if the applicant has the right characteristics to help him fit into the organization, whether its motivation, discipline, enthusiasmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc. Psychometrics tests are usually presented in multiple-choice formats. The applicant answers directly into the computer or an electronic device. The results are calculated straight away and compared with the results of a control group. Internet Interviews Interviews are an essential part of the selection process. It gives both the employer and the employee a chance to get to know each other and have a face to face conversation. Based on the interview the employer can decide whether the applicant is suitable or not. There are different types of interviews: screening, selection, group, stress, panel, and most recently internet or online interviews. Online interviews are conducted over the internet using video conferencing, it is like a normal interview, except the interviewee is not in the same place as the interviewer geographically. Online interviews give the employer the chance of conducting the interview without baring the cost of the applicants transportation and the time spent traveling; this is very effective in interviewing people from overseas. Reference checks When selecting a potential employee, companies check the employees background for criminal, medical, credit records and job references (subjected to the presence of the search and access permission). Reference checks are commonly done over the telephone and by email. There are also websites offering to conduct employment reference checks for employment like credit-check-services.co.uk. It claims to verify the employees identity; address; criminal record history; employment history; qualifications and more. Automated reference checks make accessing background information quick and easy. The problem with reference checks is permission and privacy issue; applicants must allow the company to do these checks. Assessment centers With the help of computers and the internet, it is possible to create multi user exercises like business simulations. The users of this exercise dont need to be in the same place to take part. The exercise can be customized in order to include the tasks the employer wants to evaluate the applicants in. The exercise is closely monitored and from it the employer can tell which user is doing a better job and who is having a tough time coping. It is to be noted, that one selection method doesnt replace the other. Different methods have to be applied in order to filter the hundred of applicants to the suitable one. Advantage Disadvantages of E- Recruitment Selection There are two sides to everything. The introduction of technology to recruitment selection might be the best thing that happened to HR, but it also has its setbacks. On one hand, the introduction of technology: Enabled companies to identify a virtually unlimited number of job seekers. Reached people at a global level while traditional methods can only grasp the local job market. (Chaskelson, 2000), (Ganalaki, 2002) Reduced Advertising costs, posting a job vacancy on a companys website or a job board costs less than posting it on newspapers. Reduced the time taken in recruitment; it reduced the time taken to post the job vacancy and resumes can be received on the same day. Technology also speeded up the recruitment process by automating some HR tasks. Provided a wider talent market for companies to choose from. iLogos research 1998 shows that the Internet provides better quality applicants as they tend to be better-educated and more computer literate than non-users. Provides 24/7 access to resumes and applicants can send their resumes at any time. Facilitated the use of databases, internet testing, assessment centers which help in the selection process. On the other hand, the advantages of technology are also its dangers. Due to the ease of looking for job posts and applying online, millions of rà ©sumà ©s are sent which makes the screening process hard and time consuming. The presence of internet testing makes it easy for anyone to create a test and post. Loss of human interaction. A study by Arkin and Crabb (1999) shows that executive job applicants still prefer personal contact to internet contact. It cant replace the traditional recruitment and selection methods. Seminerio (2001) stated many companies might still continue to use traditional recruitment services for hiring executive staff employees. The use of internet could discriminate against non internet users or those who are not good with computers. There are also some legal issues with e-recruitment and selection. For example, manipulation could occur in the use of internet tests the person applying may be different from the person taking the test. Overall, the advantages of e-recruitment outweigh its disadvantages. Conclusion To sum it all up, this essay has discussed and evaluated the use of technology in recruitment selection. Online recruitment has been identified as the most efficient recruitment method, it branches into: Talent Management Systems, Advertising on the companys website, job boards and social media network. There are some privacy and discrimination issues with online recruitment, but it does more good than harm. The use of technology in selection helped automate and make easy the different selection methods. It also introduced new ways of doing the methods like: online interviews, keeping an application database, online assessment centers and internet tests. I will end this essay by stating E-recruitment selection is here to stay and evolve the world into a much more advanced place of recruiting, which can potentially curb down global unemployment rates.

Shakespeares Lady Macbeth -- a Lady? Essays -- Macbeth essays

Lady Macbeth -- a Lady? -- in Macbeth      Ã‚   William Shakespeare's Macbeth places a woman in center stage, a woman who embarrasses every woman because of her lack of conscience. This essay attempts to shed light on her character.    Blanche Coles states in Shakespeare's Four Giants evaluates the character of Lady Macbeth:    A woman who could speak as Lady Macbeth does, who could call upon the spirits that tend on mortal thoughts to unsex her and fell her from head to foot full of direct cruelty, who could entreat these same spirits to stop all avenues of remorse so that no compunctions of conscience will interfere with the carrying out of her purpose, who could call upon the night to wrap itself in the murkiest, gloomiest smoke of hell in order to hide, even from the keen knife she would use, the wound she would make when she herself stabs the sleeping King, such a terrible, frightful woman would not scruple at telling a little wife-to-husband lie to accomplish her purpose. (52)    In Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies, Maynard Mack shows how Lady Macbeth complements her husband:    Her fall is instantaneous, even eager, like Eve's in Paradise Lost; his is gradual and reluctant, like Adam's. She needs only her husband's letter about the weyard sisters' prophecy to precipitate her resolve to kill Duncan. Within an instant she is inviting murderous spirits to unsex her, fill her with cruelty, thicken her blood, convert her mother's milk to gall, and darken the world "That my keen knife see not the wound it makes" (1.5.50) (189)    L.C. Knights in the essay "Macbeth" describes the unnaturalness of Lady Macbeth's words and actions:    Thus the sense of the unnat... ...Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972.    Knights, L.C. "Macbeth." Shakespeare: The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.    Mack, Maynard. Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin.    Siddons, Sarah. "Memoranda: Remarks on the Character of Lady Macbeth." The Life of Mrs. Siddons. Thomas Campbell. London: Effingham Wilson, 1834. Rpt. in Women Reading Shakespeare 1660-1900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.    Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1957.

The Effects of Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY HMPYC80 ASSIGNMENT 02-03 RESEARCH PROPOSAL TITLE: THE EFFECTS OF MINDFULNESS BASED STRESS REDUCTION TRAINING ON ADOLESCENT SELF-AWARENESS AND THE REDUCTION OF ANXIETY, DEPRESSION AND STRESS. AUTHOR: 5888743 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY HMPYC80 ASSIGNMENT 02-03 RESEARCH PROPOSAL TITLE: THE EFFECTS OF MINDFULNESS BASED STRESS REDUCTION TRAINING ON ADOLESCENT SELF-AWARENESS AND THE REDUCTION OF ANXIETY, DEPRESSION AND STRESS. AUTHOR: 5888743 Mr P Smith The ANIKA Foundation 234 West Highland Drive Newport 2843 Australia 1 May 2011 Dear Sir, Re: Research Proposal: THE EFFECTS OF MINDFULNESS BASED STRESS REDUCTION TRAINING ON ADOLESCENT SELF-AWARENESS AND THE REDUCTION OF ANXIETY, DEPRESSION AND STRESS. I am currently studying Psychology Honour’s at the University of South Africa. I am a school counsellor at a private school in Sydney where I work with children from Year K through to year 12. I have a keen interest in Adolescent mental health and suicide prevention.The Department of Mental Health at the World Health Organisation states that: â€Å"WHO figures clearly show that by 2030 depression will be the single biggest burden of care on our health care system, exceeding cardio vascular disease and obesity†. It is becoming increasingly more urgent to look at preventative strategies to reduce the number of young people presenting with depression, anxiety and stress. I understand that the ANIKA Foundation was set up in response to the tragic death by suicide of your daughter Anika.The purpose of foundation is to support and promote the prevention of anxiety and depression in young people. Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction training has been shown to develop the capacity to: †¢Consciously act and respond with awareness and clarity rather than react out of a habitual pattern †¢Bring greater concentration and focus to daily activities †¢Monitor levels of stress and distress, and take effective steps to address them †¢Positi vely take action to renew your energy – physically, emotionally and mentally.It therefore seemed appropriate to contact you with information about my proposed research topic to see if you would be interested in this new area of prevention. I look forward to hearing from you soon Yours Sincerely 5888743 Psychology Honours student and school counsellor. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY HMPYC80 ASSIGNMENT 02-03 RESEARCH PROPOSAL TITLE: THE EFFECTS OF MINDFULNESS BASED STRESS REDUCTION TRAINING ON ADOLESCENT SELF-AWARENESS AND THE REDUCTION OF ANXIETY, DEPRESSION AND STRESS. AUTHOR: 5888743 IntroductionMy experience as a School Counsellor along with current research coming out of the World Health organization indicates that by 2030 depression will be the single biggest burden of care on our health care system, exceeding cardio vascular disease and obesity. It is becoming increasingly more urgent to look at preventative strategies to reduce the number of young people presenting with depressio n, anxiety and stress. Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) is part of an exciting new field in psychology that combines ancient wisdom with modern day knowledge. The associated field ofPositive Psychology looks not only at the elimination of negative mental states but also at ways in which we can understand how people grow and flourish. Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction training has been shown to develop the capacity to: †¢Consciously act and respond with awareness and clarity rather than react out of a habitual pattern †¢Bring greater concentration and focus to daily activities †¢Monitor levels of stress and distress, and take effective steps to address them †¢Positively take action to renew your energy – physically, emotionally and mentally.MBSR strategies based on the ancient Buddhist practice of mindfulness and meditation, seek to give people the tools to develop self-awareness in order to be able to identify the different emotions that present themselves during our lifetime. And then respond to those emotions is a way that is constructive rather than destructive. The way that we think and feel about things profoundly affects the way we act in the world, so it is important to be able to recognize the feelings and thoughts that arise habitually in our lives. Research Problem A literature review indicates that MBSR has been researched quiet extensively in the medical field.The literature shows very promising results with researchers finding significant reductions in stress, anxiety and depression after participants completed MBSR training. 1,2,3, In another study, normal healthy working adults who participated in Mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR) training, showed improvement in behavioural, psychological, and physiological outcomes measured. This study assessed the effects of a shortened (low-dose [ld]) work-site MBSR intervention (MBSR-ld) on indicators of stress in healthy working adults to determine if results sim ilar to those obtained in traditional MBSR could be demonstrated.Participants were randomized into MBSR-ld and wait-list control groups. Self-reported perceived stress, sleep quality, and mindfulness were measured at the beginning and end of the 6-week intervention. Salivary cortical was assessed weekly. Significant reductions in perceived stress (p = . 0025) and increases in mindfulness (p = . 0149) were obtained for only the MBSR-ld group (n = 22). Scores on the global measure of sleep improved for the MBSR-ld group (p = . 0018) as well as for the control group (p = . 0072; n = 20). There is however at this time no literature available on the effects of teaching MBSR to adolescents, in a school setting as part of the PDHPE curriculum. This research may unlock the door to an exciting field of preventative psychology in youth mental health. What we consider stressful or what causes us to feel ‘mad’, ‘bad’ or ‘sad’ varies from one person to anot her. But any negative state can have a profound effect on the way we function in our day-to-day lives. Left unacknowledged or untreated it can develop into Stress, Anxiety or Depression.Very simply one of the first impacts of practicing mindfulness can be the capacity to move out of an aroused, activated, stressed state into a calmer, reflective more regulated state. This relaxed state – called the parasympathetic state shows in responses such as slowing down of the heart rate, increased expiration, relaxation of the muscles, increased digestive activity and recuperation and rest. Many of us spend time in our sympathetic branch of our nervous system that prepares us for active engagement. It is associated with emotions such as anger, rage and fear as well as joy, excitement and interest.This is commonly known as the fight or flight response, our hard wiring for survival. However ongoing and excessive fight/flight response that is not regulated or modulated can lead to increas ed cortisol levels creating stress and distress. By cultivating in the students an innate capacity to ‘pay attention’ on purpose, in the present moment in a non-judgmental way, we can hopefully decrease overall levels of stress, anxiety and depression. Research Design The study will include both qualitative and quantitative methods to assess the efficacy of the MBSR program.The study will include 42 year 9 students, aged 14 -15 years. They will participate in an 8 week program where they will learn techniques of mindfulness and meditation. The course will be taught in conjunction with the personal health and development curriculum (PDHPE). The quantitative part of the research includes two surveys. The surveys will be administered before the training begins, at the completion of the course and then again 6 months later. This methodology is useful as it quantifies variables by making them empirically observable, and makes replication and retesting plausible.Survey 1: The DASS (Depression, Anxiety and Stress Questionnaire) developed by Peter Lovibond from the University of New South Wales. The DASS is a set of three self-report scales designed to measure the negative emotional states of depression, anxiety and stress. The DASS was constructed not merely as another set of scales to measure conventionally defined emotional states, but to further the process of defining, understanding, and measuring the ubiquitous and clinically significant emotional states usually described as depression, anxiety and stress.The DASS should thus meet the requirements of both researchers and scientist-professional clinicians. 5 Survey 2: The Self-Assessment Questionnaire: The MAAS (Mindfulness Awareness Attention Scale) is a 15-item scale designed to assess a core characteristic of dispositional mindfulness, namely, open or receptive awareness of and attention to what is taking place in the present. The scale shows strong psychometric properties and has been validated w ith college, community, and cancer patient samples.Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies have shown that the MAAS taps a unique quality of consciousness that is related to, and predictive of, a variety of self-regulation and well-being constructs. The measure takes 10 minutes or less to complete. 6 Both surveys will be administered electronically and the student response will be anonymous. Although the data gathered will be intra-personal in nature, the trends being assessed will be more general. The data will be analysed electronically and will give me and overall level of the participating student’s self-awareness, depression, anxiety and stress.This will be compared to the surveys conducted at the end of the 8 weeks as well as those in 6 months’ time. The qualitative aspect of the research will be the weekly small discussion groups. As the students move through the training they will have opportunity to give feedback through semi structured inter views. The qualitative information gathered will give me evidence of trends and patterns emerging. I will rely primarily on interviews and observations. â€Å"the analyses produced by qualitative researchers most often are narratives and are based on words used by informants to describe their life experiences. Royce, 2004. Pg 237) In terms of sampling, it would be ideal if I could have a control group in which I could randomly assign half of the group, however unless the control group could have the opportunity to participate in the training at a later stage, this would in fact be unethical and unfair. Given the constraints of a school curriculum, this would also be very difficult. If the initial results coming out of the pilot program were promising then it would be prudent to run the program again with a control group. This would enhance the reliability and validity of the initial results.Data Analysis The study will use qualitative and quantitative research methodology. Creswell (1998, pg 15) defines qualitative research as â€Å"an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex holistic picture, analyses words, reports detailed views of informants and conducts the study in a natural setting. † The small weekly discussion groups will give me an opportunity to provide detailed and dynamic feedback on both individual and group process.Terre Blanche, Kelly and Durrheim (2006, pg 273-274) describe this as interpretative research, interested in experiences, feelings and meaning. The interviews will be semi structured, and developed according to data collected from the previous week and current literature. All interviews will be transcribed. The intention behind the analysis of the transcripts will be to extract a common narrative There are no costs associated with my research at this time. Ethics and expected Outcomes The children will be give n permission slips and consent forms to take home to be signed by their parents.At all times the welfare of the children will be monitored and they will have access to the support of the school counsellor and the PDHPE staff. All participants will be given a letter explaining the idea behind the program. The online surveys will be anonymous and data transcribed from the semi structured interviews will be anonymous and made available to the students should they wish to see the transcripts. The students will be re-surveyed in 6 months’ time to assess whether the program has had sustainable effects. There are expected short term and long term outcomes for this research.In the short term we hope that the children will learn to meditate and make meditation and mindfulness part of their everyday routine. Obviously we hope they will also reach the goals they set for themselves on a physical level. In the long term we are hoping that the skill that they learn during this 8 week progr am will be the inoculation and thereby increased resilience that they will need for the upcoming stress associated with their HSC (Matric), and all of the other life stressors going forward. Literature Review 1.Impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on sleep, mood, stress and fatigue symptoms in cancer outpatients: Linda E. Carlson and Sheila N. Garland 2. A qualitative study of self-perceived effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in a psychosocial oncology setting: Michael J. Mackenzie1, Linda E. Carlson1,2,*, Marleny Munoz1, Michael Speca1,2 Article first published online 28 NOV 2006 3. Randomized controlled trial of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) for survivors of breast cancer: Cecile A. Lengacher1, Versie Johnson-Mallard1, Janice Post-White2, Manolete S. Moscoso1, Paul B.Jacobsen3, Thomas W. Klein4, Raymond H. Widen4,5, Shirley G. Fitzgerald1, Melissa M. Shelton1, Michelle Barta1, Matthew Goodman6, Charles E. Cox3,4, Kevin E. Kip1,* Article first published online: 20 FEB 2009ne: 28 NOV 2006 4. Effects of Low-Dose Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR-ld) on Working Adults: Maryanna D. Klatt, PhD. College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, klatt. [email  protected] eduJanet Buckworth, PhD. College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University, Columbus William B. Malarkey, MD. College of Medicine, the Ohio State University, Columbus Scales 5. Lovibond, S. H. Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales. (2nd. Ed. ) Sydney: Psychology Foundation. ISBN 7334-1423-0. Lovibond, P. F. & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335-343. 6. Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) Kirk Warren Brown, Ph. D. & Richard M. Ryan, Ph. D. References 1. Cresswell, J. W. (1998) Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among 5 traditions. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publishers 2. Kelly, K. 2006) From encounter to text: collecting data in qualitative research. In Terre Blance, M. , & Durrheim,K. , Painter, D. (Eds), Research in Practise (Second Edition). Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press. 3. Mindfulness Based Stress Reduciton/Mindfulness Based Cognitive therapy Course Book. Open Ground Training and Consultancy. Sydney, Australia 4. Royse, D. (2004) Qualitative Research from Research Methods in Social Work, Fourth Edition, Brookes/Cole-Thomson Learning, Pacific Grove, CA, USA. 5. Terre Blance, M. , & Durrheim,K. , Painter, D. (Eds), Research in Practise (Second Edition). Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.

Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essays

Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essays Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essay Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essay Optimization utilizing response surface methodological analysis for the extractions of phenoplasts from Citrus hystrix foliage was carried out by supercritical fluid extraction. The effects of CO2 rate, extraction force per unit area and extraction temperature on output, entire phenolic content and Diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl-IC50 were evaluated and compared with ethanol extraction. Ethanol infusions and optimal SFE conditions were analysed with HPLC. Among the three variables studied, extraction force per unit area had the most important influence on the output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 of the infusions, followed by CO2 rate and extraction temperature. The optimal conditions of force per unit area, CO2 rate and temperature were at 267 bars, 18 g/min and 50oC, severally. The output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 obtained were 5.06 % , 116.53 milligram GAE/g infusion and IC50 of 0.063 mg/ml, severally. These values were moderately near to their opposite number of predicted ( p gt ; 0.05 ) . Better suppress ion and TPC were obtained utilizing SFE method whereas higher output and phenolic acids were observed with ethanol extraction. The nerve-racking life manner and less balanced nutrient consumption globally partly due to high concentrations of free lipid groups, both in nutrient ( in vitro ) and in vivo after nutrient consumption has given to the demand to look at antioxidants as a functional ingredient in nutrient. Man-made antioxidants such as, butylated hydroxytoluene ( BHT ) , butylated hydroxyanisole ( BHA ) , tertiary- butyl hydro-quanone ( TBHQ ) and propyl gallate ( PG ) , are conventional nutrient antioxidants. Due to safety issues, consumer concerns and increasing regulative examination ( ( Jamilah et al. , 2009 ; Shahidi. , 1997 ) refering man-made antioxidants, the possibility of natural antioxidants as options is sharply researched. The foliages of Citrus hystrix, known locally as, Limau purut, is used in many Malayan and South-East Asiatic part local dishes and medicative readyings. C.hystrix as a possible new beginning of natural antioxidant was reported by Jamilah et Al. ( 1998 ) , Ching and Mo hamed ( 2001 ) , Jaswir et Al. ( 2004 ) , Idris et Al. ( 2008 ) , Chan et Al. ( 2009 ) and Butryee et Al. ( 2009 ) . All infusions were extracted utilizing the conventional dissolvers such as, ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, propanone and H2O. To bring forth infusions of high phenolic content and rich in antioxidants from C. hystrix foliages, requires high extraction efficiency influenced by factors such as atom size, extraction methods, solvent type, solvent concentration, solvent-to-solid ratio, extraction temperature, force per unit area and clip ( Banik et al, 2007 ; Lang et al. , 2001 ; Pinelo et al. , 2005 ; Silva et al. , 2007 ) . Steam distillment and organic dissolver extraction utilizing infiltration, maceration and Soxhlet techniques are conventionally used for the extraction of bioactive compounds from works beginnings. They are non efficient and economical and this can be overcome by utilizing the supercritical C dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) procedure ( Bimakr et al. , 2009 ) . Carbon dioxide ( critical temperature, force per unit area and denseness ~ 31.18 oC, 72.0 saloon ; 0.47 gcm-3, severally ) is safe, residue free, non-flammable, in expensive and environmentally- friendly ( Pyo and Oo, 2007 ) . The optimisation of supercritical fluids for the extraction of natural antioxidants and phenolic compounds from the foliages of C.hystrix has non been reported. Hence, this survey was carried out with the aim of optimising the extraction of the antioxidant and phenolic acids from the foliages of C. hystrix utilizing supercritical C dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) fluid extraction by changing and/or repairing known variables associated with the extraction techniques. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Reagents used Folin-Ciocalteu Reagent ( FCR ) and 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl ( DPPH ) were purchased from Sigma ( St Louis MO USA ) . Carbone dioxide, ( pureness 99.99 % ) , incorporating in a Carbone dioxide dip tubing cylinder, was purchased from Malayan Oxygen ( MOX ) , Malaysia. Absolute ethyl alcohol ( 99.4 % , analytical class ) , the qualifier for SC-CO2 procedure, acetonitrile and methyl alcohol ( HPLC class ) as the nomadic stage for HPLC and phenolic acids criterions ( vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, M-cumeric, trans cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, Gallic acid and sinapic acid ) were purchased from Fisher Scientific Chemical ( Loughborough, England ) . All other chemicals used were either analytical or HPLC class. 2.2 Preparation of Sample The foliages of C. hystrix were obtained from Pasar Borong, a whole sale market at Puchong, Selangor, Malaysia. Upon reaching at the research lab, foliages were sorted, washed under running tap H2O, oven dried at 40A °C for 24h and stored at ambient temperature off from the visible radiation. The dried foliages were land merely before extraction in a liquidizer ( MX-335, Panasonic, Malaysia ) for 10s to bring forth a pulverization with an approximative atom size of 0.5mm ( Bimak et al. , 2009 ) . 2.3 Solvent Extraction The phenolic compounds in the C. hystrix leaves powder were extracted harmonizing to Jamilah et Al. ( 1998 ) with little alterations. The first measure involved soaking the pulverization in 95 % ethyl alcohol for 24h at 50oC at an ethyl alcohol to flick ratio of 10:1 ( v/w ) . The petroleum infusion was so filtered and concentrated by vaporizing at 40oC in the rotary evaporator ( Eyela, A-1000S, Japan ) .When the ethyl alcohol was evaporated off the concentrated infusion was transferred into brown glass bottles, flushed with N and kept at 25oC until usage. The extraction was carried out in triplicate 2.4 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) Extraction Supercritical C dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) fluid extraction utilizing the supercritical fluid extractor ( ABRP200, Pittsburgh, PA, USA ) , with a 500 milliliter extractor vas attached, was carried out harmonizing to Bimark et Al. ( 2009 ) with little alterations. The flow rate of CO2 and modifier, extraction temperature, force per unit area and clip were adjusted utilizing ICE package coupled with the supercritical fluid extractor. The liquid CO2 was pressurized and heated to the coveted force per unit area and temperature with the assistance of force per unit area pump ( P-50, Pittsburg, PA, USA ) to make the supercritical province prior to go throughing it into the extraction vas. Absolute ethyl alcohol was used as the qualifier to better the extraction of phenoplasts from C.hystrix foliages and fixed at a flow rate of 3 milliliters / min for all experimental processs. The continuance of the inactive extraction clip was fixed at 30 min, while the dynamic extraction clip was changeless at 9 0 min. Fifty gms of C. hystrix foliages ( pulverization ) was assorted with 150g glass beads ( 2.0 millimeter in diameters ) to systematize the flow rate and the mixture was placed in the extractor vas. The extraction was so performed under assorted experimental conditions as generated by the response surface methodological analysis ( RSM ) design. EtOH was removed from the infusions by vacuity vaporization utilizing a rotary evaporator ( Eyela, A-1000S, Japan ) at 40 A °C. The infusions were collected in the unit of ammunition bottle flask ( warped with aluminum foil to minimise light exposure and therefore oxidization ) and so placed in the oven at 40A °C for 30 min before being transferred into desiccators for concluding changeless weight. Infusions were transferred into brown glass bottles, flashed with N and stored in a deep-freeze of -25A °C until farther analysis. The extractions were carried out in extras. 2.5 Determination of Total Phenolic Content ( TPC ) The entire phenolic content of C.hystrix foliage infusions was determined utilizing the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent harmonizing to the method described by Singletone et Al. ( 1999 ) . An aliquot of the infusion ( 0.5mL ) was put in 0.5mL of Folin reagent, under dim visible radiation before 10mL ( 7 % ) of Na carbonate was added. The mixture was so left in the dark for 60A min. The optical density of the mixture was measured against EtOH ( space ) at 725A nanometers by utilizing a UV-Visible spectrophotometer ( UV-1650PC, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan ) . The standardization equation for Gallic acid, expressed as Gallic acid equivalent ( GAE ) in mg/g infusion, was y = 0.0064x + 0.0093 ( R2 = 0.9972 ) . 2.6 Determination of Free Radical Scavenging Activity Free extremist scavenging activity of C.hystrix foliage infusions was measured harmonizing to the process described by Ramadan et Al. ( 2006 ) with little alterations. A 0.1A milliliter aliquot of toluenic sample solution at different concentrations was added with 0.39A milliliters of fresh toluenic 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl ( DPPH ) solution ( 0.1A millimeter ) . Triplicates were carried out for each concentration. The mixtures were shaken smartly and left in the dark for 60A min and optical density was read against pure methylbenzene ( clean ) at 515A nanometers utilizing a UV-Visible spectrophotometer ( UV-1650PC, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan ) . The free extremist scavenging activity of infusions was calculated as follows: % Inhibition = ( [ Acontrol-Asample ] /Acontrol ) *100 Where AcontrolA =A optical density of the control reaction ( incorporating all reagents except samples ) ; AsampleA =A optical density of the trial compound. Determination of IC50 in this trial was defined as the concentration of the infusion that was able to suppress 50 % of the entire DPPH groups. IC50 of the sample was expressed in mg/mL and calculated through the insertion of additive arrested development analysis ( Brand-Williams et al. , 1995 ) 2.7 Determination of Phenolic acids The phenolic acids of the C.hystrix foliage infusions that were obtained from the optimal SC-CO2 conditions ( optimum of output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 ) were analysed by a high-performance liquid chromatography ( HPLC ) , [ Agilent Technologies 1200 series theoretical account, 76337 Waldbronn, Germany ] equipped with Diode Array Detector ( DAD ) , and sensing at 254nm. The HPLC parametric quantities were modified from Anderson et Al. ( 1983 ) . The column temperature used was 30A °C at a maximal temperature 35A °C and the column used was Crespak RP C18S RP C18 ( 150mm L* 4.6mm ID, JASCO ) . The dissolvers were of HPLC class ( Fisher Scientific Chemical, Loughborough, England ) . All dissolvers were filtered through a cellulose nitrate membrane filters ( 0.45 A µm ) . Flow rate of nomadic stages used were 1.5ml/min for 25 % acetonitrile in formic acid-water ( 0.5:99.5 ) , run isocratically. The infusions were foremost filtered through 0.2 A µm nylon ( NYL ) filter, ( Whatman ) for the remotion of drosss and unwanted compounds. The injection volume used was 20A µL with extras for each of the SC-CO2 optimal conditions and ethanol infusions. The criterions used were vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, M-cumeric, trans cinnamic acid, benzoic acid and sinapic acid ( Fisher Scientific Chemical Loughborough, England ) . Designation and quantification of phenolic acids in the infusions were based on the standard curves of the criterions every bit good as their extremums keeping times. 2.8 Experimental design and statistical analysis Response surface methodological analysis ( RSM ) was used to find the optimal conditions for the output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 in C.hystrix foliage infusions. The experimental design and statistical analysis were carried out utilizing the statistical package ( MINITAB let go of 14 ) . Central composite design was chosen to measure the joint consequence of three independent variables CO2 rate, extraction temperature and force per unit area, coded as X1, X2 and X3, severally. The minimal and maximal values for CO2 rate were set at 15 and 25 g/min, extraction temperature between 40 and 60 oC and force per unit area between 100 and 300 bars. The dependent values were yield, TPC and DPPH-IC50. For optimisation, output and TPC were maximized to accomplish highest values and loswest value for DPPH-IC50. The whole design consisted of 20 combinations including six replicates of the Centre point ( Table 1 ) ( Myers A ; Montgomery, 2002 ) . The ANOVA tabular arraies were generated and the consequence and arrested development coefficients of single linear, quadratic and interaction footings were determined. The significances of all footings in the multinomial were analyzed statistically by calculating the F-value at a chance ( P ) of 0.001, 0.01 or 0.05. The statistically found non-significant ( p gt ; 0.05 ) footings were removed from the initial theoretical accounts and merely important ( p lt ; 0.05 ) factors were involved in the concluding reduced theoretical account. It should be noted that non-significant additive footings were kept in the decreased theoretical account in instances where their quadratic or interaction footings were important ( p lt ; 0.05 ) ( Mirhosseini et al. , 2009 ) . Experimental informations were fitted to the undermentioned 2nd order multinomial theoreti cal account and arrested development coefficients were obtained harmonizing to the generalized second-order multinomial theoretical account proposed for the response surface analysis, given as follows Where I?0, I?i, I?ii, I?ij were arrested development coefficients for intercept, additive, quadratic and interaction footings, severally. Eleven and Xj were coded values of the independent variables, while K equaled to the figure of the tried factors ( k=3 ) . 3. Consequences and Discussion 3.1 Response Surface Methodology ( RSM ) Analysiss 3.1.1 Model Fitness Based on the scopes set for the identified parametric quantities, 20 trails of each parametric quantity, including six replicates of the Centre points that influence Yield, TPC and DPPH-IC50 were selected. In this survey, the lower and upper values for the variables were set at +alpha ( +I ±=1.633 ) and -alpha ( -I ±=1.633 ) and so all the factor degrees were chosen within the bounds that were practical with SFE ( above critical tempHYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperature eratureA of 31A °C andA critical pressureA of 72A saloon ) and desirable. The experimental and predicted values for responses under the different combinations of extraction conditions via SC-CO2 extractions were as in Table ( 1 ) . The consequences indicated that output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 obtained, ranged from 0.4- 5 % , 15 128.9 milligram GAE/g infusion and 0.065 0.300 mg/ml, severally. By using multiple arrested development analysis, relationships between the tried parametric quantities and the responses were explained in equations 2, 3, and 4 for output, TPC and DPPH-IC50, severally. The fittingness of response map and experimental information was evaluated from the one-dimensionality, quadratic and arrested development coefficients of independent variables as shown in Table 2. The ANOVA of arrested development theoretical account showed that the theoretical accounts were perceptibly important due to the highly low chance value ( P lt ; 0.001 ) . The coefficient of finding ( R2 ) and significance of deficiency of fittingness was farther evaluated to look into the fittingness and theoretical account adequateness. The R2 equal to the integrity or a†°? 0.8, is desirable. R2 values for the arrested development theoretical account of output, TPC, and DPPH-IC50, were 0.935, 0.95, and 0.96, severally, which were close to 1 ( Table 2 ) . Therefore, bespeaking that t he predicted 2nd order multinomial theoretical accounts fitted good with the system. The values of adjusted R2 ( corrected value for R2 after the riddance of the unneeded theoretical account footings ) of output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 were besides really high, therefore proposing the high significance of the theoretical account ( 0.897, 0.92 and 0.93 ) . The coincident addition of both R2 and adjusted R2 plus the absence of any deficiency of tantrum ( p gt ; 0.05 ) in our information has proved its credibleness and theoretical account adequateness. The multiple arrested development consequences and the significance of arrested development coefficients yield, TPC and DPPH-IC50 theoretical accounts were as shown in Table 3. It could be observed that both the linear and quadratic term of all parametric quantities significantly ( p lt ; 0.05 ) effected the output, TPC and DPPH -IC50, nevertheless, CO2 rate did non significantly impact the DPPH-IC50 where temperature consequence on TPC was merely important in quadratic mode to stay in the theoretical account ( Table 3 ) . The undermentioned arrested development equations showed the concluding reduced theoretical accounts fitted for the parametric quantities and their responses. Yield= 3.33 + 0.142 X1 + 0.164X2 + 0.00735X3- 0.00669X12 0.00218 X22 0.000025 X32 Eq ( 2 ) TPC = 909 + 25.4 X1 + 25.6 X2 + 1.54 X3 0.668 X12 0.250 X22- 0.00278 X32 Eq ( 3 ) DPPH-IC50= 0.604 X2 0.0177 X3 + 0.00559 X22 + 0.000031 X32 Eq ( 4 ) 3.1.2 Verification of theoretical accounts The rightness of the response surface equation was tested by the rating of experimental and predicted values from the reduced response arrested development theoretical accounts. A close understanding between the experimental and predicted values ( Table1 ) was noted. No important ( p gt ; 0.05 ) difference was observed between those values, proposing the equal fittingness of the response equations. 3.2 Influence of Pressure, CO2 Rate and Temperature on SC-CO2 Extraction efficiency Figure 1 ( a ) showed the 3-dimensional response surface secret plans by showing the response in the map of two factors and maintaining the temperature at its in-between degree ( 50oC ) . It showed a higher output in the part of extraction force per unit area between 190 to 300 bars and at CO2 rate of 12 to 17g/min. Both extraction force per unit area and CO2 rate exhibited important additive and quadratic effects on output as shown Table ( 3 ) . The output was optimum at approximately 14.8g / min CO2 flow rate and at force per unit area of 320 bars. Eextraction force per unit area was more influential than CO2 rate as reflected by its higher linear and quadratic coefficients ( I?3=0.65819 ; I?33 = -0.25168 ) compared to the latter ( I?1= -0.35060 ; I?11=-0.16731 ) . In supercritical fluid extraction ( SFE ) , increased force per unit areas consequence in, increased solvent denseness and solvent power of fluid which may take to higher extraction outputs, on the other manus, increased pure CO2 rate under SFE is a good dissolver for lipotropic compounds ( non- polar ) but is hapless for phenoplasts ( polar ) ( Martinez, 2007 ) . Therefore, modifier ( ethyl alcohol ) was used to better the extraction of phenoplasts from C.hystrix foliages. Figure 1 ( B ) showed the effects of extraction force per unit area and extraction temperature on output at changeless CO2 rate of 20 g/min. Extraction force per unit area displayed a really important ( p lt ; 0.001 ) on the output in additive and quadratic mode as besides shown in Table ( 3 ) . At force per unit area of a†°?140 and temperature non transcending 47oC output increased, nevertheless with farther addition in the temperature the output showed a lessening which is most likely due to the reduced denseness of CO2. The relationship of CO2 rate and extraction temperature with output was plotted in Figure 1 ( degree Celsius ) . Both the parametric quantities exhibited important additive and quadratic consequence ( P lt ; 0.05 ) on output. The output increased quickly with diminishing CO2 rate up to 13 g/m and this followed by a little lessening thenceforth. By uniting all the consequences presented in Figure 1, it was obvious that extraction force per unit area had the most critical impact on output of the infusion followed by CO2 rate and extraction temperature. 3.3 Entire Phenolic Content ( TPC ) The TPC of the infusion was as shown in Figure 2. Depending on the force per unit area, temperature and CO2 rate, the TPC of the infusion ranged from 15.0 to 128.9 milligrams GAE/g infusion. No available literature study could be be used for comparing for the SC-CO2 extraction method ; nevertheless, Idris et Al. ( 2008 ) reported that TPC of the infusions was about 103.2 milligrams GAE/g infusion which was somewhat lower than our EtOH extracted TPC ( 112.7 milligram GAE per g infusion ) . Moderate degrees of the selected independent variables of SC-CO2 infusions ( run order 7, 10, 12, and 17, Table 1 ) reflected higher TPC of the C.hystrix foliage infusions than our EtOH extraction every bit good as Idris s ; this may hold something to make with possible partial debasement of the extracted compounds due to long extraction clip when conventional extraction methods are to be used. With SC-CO2 method the extraction clip ( 90 min ) was unusually shorter than that of EtOH extraction ( gt ; 20 H ) . 3.4 Free Radical Scavenging Activity Figure 3 demonstrated the consequence of temperature and force per unit area on the scavenging belongings of the C.hystrix leave infusions. The antioxidant activity of the infusions, determined by the IC50 of extremist scavenging belongingss of diphenylpicrylhydrazyl ( DPPH-IC50 ) , was found to be high at mean degree of temperature and comparatively increased phases of force per unit area i.e. DPPH-IC50 of the infusions bit by bit decreased with the addition of extraction temperature and force per unit area up to 50 A °C and 314 bars, severally to accomplish optimal value of IC50 at 0.0585 before it began to increase. The lesser the IC50, the stronger activity is the corresponding affair ( Mariod et al. , 2010 ) . Under the assay conditions employed here, the IC50 of BHA and I ±-tocopherol as a positive controls were 0.023mg/ml and 0.031mg/ml, severally, among the infusion run order 12, 9, and 16 ( table 1 ) possessed greater DPPH extremist scavenging activities with the lower I C50 values of 0.065, 0.08 and 0.085mg/ml, severally. This was in understanding to the findings of Idriss et Al. ( 2008 ) , where the activity of BHA was found to be higher than the sample. Compared to conventional solvent extraction method with the IC50 of 0.250 mg/ml ( Table 1 ) , it can be observed that SC-CO2 infusions demonstrated noteworthy DPPH radical-scavenging activity unusually greater than that of traditional extraction method. The IC50 values for CLE extracted by SC-CO2 ranged from 0.065 0.300 mg/ml depending on force per unit area and temperature where an addition in the force per unit area comparatively resulted in an addition in its antioxidant capacity. 3.5 Identification and Quantification of Phenolic Acids of the infusions. Out of seven standard phenolic acid solutions assorted, six have been detected in dissolver and supercritical C dioxide extraction of the infusions ( table 4 ) . By quantifying the sum of phenolic acids in the infusion, a considerable fluctuation between EtOH and SC-CO2 extraction was observed. Higher recovery of phenolic acids than that of SC-CO2 extraction was found utilizing 95 % EtOH as shown in Table ( 4 ) . The figure of polar map groups, e.g. hydroxyl groups, may hold influenced volatility of the solutes therefore finding their optimal extractability with SC-CO2 ( Lang and Wai, 2001 ) . For illustration, ( Stahl and Glatz, 1984 ) successfully extracted steroids with three hydroxyl groups below 300 bars but failed to pull out those steroids dwelling of four hydroxyl groups, or three hydroxyls and one acid group, or one phenolic hydroxyl with two other hydroxyl groups. Despite the difference in measure, the type of phenolic acids bing in the infusions for both EtOH and SC-CO2 ex traction methods remained changeless. Trans-cinnamic, M-coumeric and Vanillic acids represented as the prevailing phenolic acids, while P-coumeric, Benzoic and sinapic acids reasonably existed in the infusions ( Table 4 ) . 3.6 Decision The optimal conditions of force per unit area at 265 bars, temperature at 50oC and CO2 rate at 18 g/min was needed for higher SC-CO2 extraction of output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 of C.hystrix leave infusions. Of the three independent variables studied, extraction force per unit area was the most important factor act uponing on output, TPC and DPPH-IC50, flowed by CO2 rate and extraction temperature. Higher sums of output and phenolic acids than SC-CO2, was found in solvent extraction. Nevertheless, SC-CO2 extracts exhibited high quality in antioxidant activity measured by IC50 of 1,1-Diphenyl-picrylhydrazylA ( DPPH ) and entire phenolic content ( TPC ) . Even though some good consequences was achieved with the traditional EtOH extraction, supercritical CO2 extraction showed faster and better extraction of C.hystrix foliages. Therefore, the green engineering, reclaimable CO2 could be an alternate method of extraction for superior antioxidants from C.hystrix foliages. Recognition The writers appreciate and thankful for the fiscal support received from the RMC, the University Putra Malaysia for this survey.